| Argue | to present reasons for or against a claim in formal writing | The author argues that technology has transformed education. |
| Assert | to state firmly and confidently without providing proof | The report asserts that crime has fallen significantly. |
| Examine | to investigate or analyse something carefully | This essay will examine the causes of climate change. |
| Demonstrate | to show evidence that something is true or exists | Research has demonstrated a link between diet and health. |
| Furthermore | a discourse marker that adds a stronger or more important point | The results were unexpected. Furthermore, they contradicted earlier findings. |
| Nevertheless | a discourse marker showing contrast despite the previous point | The data was incomplete. Nevertheless, conclusions were drawn. |
| Whilst | formal equivalent of "while" — used in academic writing | Whilst some argue for tradition, others embrace change. |
| Subsequent | coming after something in time or order | The discovery led to subsequent investigations across the region. |
| Aforementioned | mentioned earlier in the same document or text | The aforementioned study was conducted in 2019. |
| Validity | the quality of being logically sound or having legal/official force | Scholars have questioned the validity of the original experiment. |
| Empirical | based on observation and data rather than theory alone | The team needed empirical evidence before publishing. |
| Paradigm | a standard model or pattern used in a particular field | The discovery shifted the prevailing scientific paradigm. |