Having finished, she left · The work done, we went home · With the exams over · Though tired · lest we forget
Building on C1
Packing more into one sentence
At B2–C1 you reduced relative clauses (the man standing there). C2 uses non-finite and verbless clauses to join ideas compactly in formal and literary writing.
Perfect participle clauses
One action completed before another
Having finished the report, she went home.
= After she had finished …
Not knowing what to say, he left.
Negative: not before the participle.
The subject must be the same in both clauses. Not: Having finished, the bus arrived.
Absolute clauses
A clause with its own subject
The work done, we went for a drink.
Weather permitting, the match will go ahead.
She stood at the door, her heart racing.
With the exams over, we finally relaxed.
with + noun + participle / adverb
Verbless clauses
Conjunction + adjective or noun, no verb
Though tired, he kept going.
If necessary, we can change the date.
Once a small village, it is now a busy town.
Negative purpose: lest · for fear that · so as not to
Formal ways to say "so that … not"
We spoke quietly so as not to wake the baby.
He wrote it down for fear that he might forget.
They built a memorial lest we forget.
lest + base form (or should): very formal.
Common mistakes
Where learners go wrong most often
Having finished the meal, the waiter brought the bill.
→
Having finished the meal, we asked for the bill.
same subject in both clauses
Not having knowing the way, we got lost.
→
Not knowing the way, we got lost.
not + -ing
Lest we will forget.
→
Lest we forget.
lest + base form
Though was tired, she kept going.
→
Though tired, she kept going.
verbless: no verb, no subject
Your turn
Answer out loud — full sentences
Use the C2 clause types.
1
Describe your morning starting with Having…
2
Describe a scene with an absolute clause: …, her hands shaking.
3
Make a plan with Weather permitting, … or If necessary, …
4
Explain a precaution you take with so as not to or for fear that.