| Polysemy /pəˈlɪsəmi/ | one word having several related meanings | The word "head" shows polysemy: the head of a person, of a company, of a queue. |
| Denotation literal meaning / primary sense | the literal, dictionary meaning of a word, without emotional associations | The denotation of "snake" is a reptile; its connotation may be treachery. |
| Amelioration semantic elevation / meaning improvement | a process by which a word gains a more positive meaning over time | Amelioration: "knight" originally meant servant; it later gained prestige. |
| Pejoration semantic degradation / meaning worsening | a process by which a word gains a more negative meaning over time | Pejoration: "villain" originally meant farm worker; now it means evil person. |
| Malapropism /ˈmæləprɒpɪzəm/ | the mistaken use of a similar-sounding word, often funny | Saying "for all intensive purposes" is a malapropism. |
| Litotes understatement / negative affirmation | understatement using a negative to affirm a positive, often for emphasis or irony | Litotes: "not bad" meaning "very good" / "not unlike" meaning "similar" |
| Neologism /niˈɒlədʒɪzəm/ | a newly invented word or meaning | "Doomscrolling" is a recent neologism. |
| Dysphemism offensive substitute / blunt term | a harsh or deliberately offensive word used in place of a neutral or positive one | Dysphemism: "croak" for "die" / "shrink" for "therapist" |
| Synecdoche part-for-whole substitution | a figure of speech where a part represents the whole, or vice versa | Synecdoche: "All hands on deck" — hands = sailors |
| Metonymy name substitution / associated reference | using a closely associated concept to refer to something else | Metonymy: "The Crown" for the monarchy / "The press" for journalism |
| Register shift style shift / code-switching | changing the formality level of language to suit the audience or context | A register shift from "I wish to enquire" to "Can I ask?" signals informality. |
| Semantic field lexical field / word family | a group of words all related to the same topic or concept | The semantic field of medicine: diagnosis, treatment, prognosis, recovery. |