| filler /ˈfɪlə/ | a word like "um" or "like" that fills a pause in speech | "Um" and "you know" are common fillers in conversation. |
| discourse marker /ˈdɪskɔːs ˌmɑːkə/ | a word that organises talk, like "well" or "anyway" | "Anyway" is a discourse marker that changes the topic. |
| hedge /hedʒ/ | a word that makes a statement less direct | "Sort of" works as a hedge in speech. |
| contraction /kənˈtrækʃn/ | a shortened form like "don't" or "it's" | Avoid contractions such as "can't" in formal essays. |
| vague language /ˌveɪɡ ˈlæŋɡwɪdʒ/ | imprecise words like "stuff" or "and things like that" | "We bought snacks and stuff" contains vague language. |
| backchannel /ˈbækˌtʃænl/ | small sounds a listener makes to show attention, like "mm-hm" | "Mm-hm" and "right" are backchannel responses. |
| ellipsis /ɪˈlɪpsɪs/ | leaving out words that are understood | "Want a coffee?" is ellipsis for "Do you want a coffee?" |
| lexical density /ˌleksɪkl ˈdensəti/ | the proportion of content words in a text | Academic writing has a much higher lexical density than chat. |
| nominal style /ˌnɒmɪnl ˈstaɪl/ | writing that uses many nouns instead of verbs | "The introduction of the policy" is an example of nominal style. |
| turn-taking /ˈtɜːn ˌteɪkɪŋ/ | the way speakers share the conversation | Good turn-taking means not interrupting all the time. |