Ser + participle, estar + participle, and how Spanish avoids the passive
The ser passive emphasises the action and who performed it (the agent, with por). It is common in formal and written Spanish.
La ley fue aprobada por el parlamento. (The law was approved by parliament.)
El cuadro ha sido restaurado por expertos. (The painting has been restored by experts.)
Structure: ser (conjugated) + past participle (agreeing with subject) + por + agent
Ser passive = action in progress (dynamic); estar + participle = resulting state (stative).
La tienda fue cerrada a las ocho. (The shop was closed at eight — the action of closing.)
La tienda estaba cerrada. (The shop was closed — the state, the result.)
If you can add "por alguien" → ser. If you describe a state → estar.
Spanish speakers usually prefer the se pasivo (impersonal-passive with se) over the ser passive, especially in speech.
Se aprobó la ley. (The law was passed / They passed the law.)
Se venden pisos aquí. (Flats are sold here / Flats for sale here.)
Se habla español. (Spanish is spoken here.)
Key: the verb agrees with the logical subject (la ley → se aprobó; pisos → se venden).
When the agent is unknown or irrelevant, use se + 3rd person singular.
Se dice que… (It is said that… / People say…)
Se cree que el proyecto empezará en enero. (It is believed that…)
¿Cómo se dice "rainbow" en español? (How do you say…?)
When the passive has a personal object, use the indirect-object passive or se pasivo carefully.
Me fue concedida la beca. (I was granted the scholarship.) — literary
Se me concedió la beca. (I was granted the scholarship.) — more natural
Le fue enviada la carta. (She was sent the letter.)
Traps for English speakers
These are the errors English speakers make most often.